Invasive Brazilian Pepper
Author: Alonzo Bell
Article: Invasive Term Paper Brazilian Pepper, Schinus terebinthifolius
Publish Date: 04/12/2023
Brazilian Pepper, Schinus terebinthifolius
Description and Account of Variation
The Brazilian pepper is an interesting species which has invaded the U.S in the recent century. The Brazilian Pepper was brought to America from South America in the 1840s and was regarded as a holiday ornamental significant to christmas time. It has been introduced to Africa via horticultural trades, and has been noted to be utilized for medicinal purposes, ornamental, and even as a food commodity. The Brazilian Pepper scientific name is Schinus terebinthifolia. The Brazilian Pepper Tree is of the Anacardiaceae family, which is a part of the Cashew family. It is also related to; Poison Ivy, Cashew, Poison Sumac, and Poison Oak which are some well known species in North America. Since it’s related to poisonous species and contains urushiol compounds; it can cause irritation, respiratory infections, be allergenic, and pose a safety hazard to the public and wildlife. The species grows in very dense populations and displaces native plants by blocking sunlight from reaching the native plants; and eventually choking them out. The Brazilian Pepper species aggressively outgrows native plants and surrounding environments and infrastructures similar to the Kudzu species's effect on North American landscapes.
The species is native to Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay and has spread throughout much of the world. It was introduced to Florida and Hawaii as an ornamental species. The Brazilian Pepper was also introduced to Arizona, California, Texas, Georgia, Louisiana, and Alabama for ornamental, economic purposes, and as accidental introductions. As the Brazilian pepper begins to thrive since its arrival, states such as Florida are noticing its invasive characteristics and dealing with the economic impacts of the species.
Figure 1. Native Region of Brazilian Pepper
Some common names which the Brazilian Pepper is referred to are; Rose pepper, Christmas Berry Tree, Florida Holly, and Brazilian Pepper Tree. The Brazilian Pepper experienced a 50-60 year lag period after its introduction to Florida. This means that its populations didn’t just explode after its introduction but have gradually increased overtime leading to a J-shaped curve on its population scale.
Mature plants or trees develop 8,000 fruits, with each individual fruit containing a single seed which shows its potential to spread and repopulate in a new environment. The Brazilian pepper grows both male and female flower pods which makes it dioecious. It contains 7 to 9 alternately arranged oblong elliptic leaflets. The berries are a shiny red appearance and are ⅕ of an inch in diameter. The berries form in dense clusters which appear red.The berries contain the seed which is often spreaded from associated defecation from organisms after digestion. The berries serve as a fleshy nutrient and a snack for wildlife organisms.
Figure 2. Red Berry Clusters of Brazilian Pepper
The plants or trees mature quickly and can grow 30-50 feet tall. The species grows extensive, deep, and long root systems which can be established in environments with minimal inputs. The long root system makes this plant a prime candidate for stabilizing stream banks, grasslands, prairies, ditches, suppressing fires, invading newly disturbed sites (exp. construction), and also recycling and retaining nutrients in the soils. The diverse characteristics of the Brazilian Pepper Tree makes it a fierce competitor when introduced and adapted to non native environments. For instance, states such as Hawaii and Florida have seen economical and biological effects of the invasion of Brazilian Pepper. Countries as far as Africa, New Zealand, and Australia have also noted the effect of the species.
To give some perspective on its reproducing capabilities; Poison Ivy can produce more than 30,000 seeds or more per year and Brazilian pepper can produce 8,000 seeds per year. Though the Poison Ivy produces many more seeds, it is more native to eastern and western regions of the United States and not invasive. A mature non native Brazilian Pepper plant which produces this many seeds obviously has good potential to invade new landscapes overtime, especially while having interactions with predators and pollinators.
Figure 3. Maximum Height of Mature Various Mature Species
According to fig. 3; these are the maximum heights of which these mature trees and plants tend to grow. Poison Sumac reaches up to a 25 ft maximum and Poison Oak grows up to 10 ft. Poison Ivy grows vertically up to 1-4 ft. tall, with the exception of being capable of climbing hundreds of feet up vertical structures. Cashew trees grow to a maximum of 46 ft. tall. The mature Brazilian Pepper Tree reaches up to 45 ft. tall and the Peruvian Pepper Tree grows a whopping 60 ft. tall.
With the Brazilian Pepper Trees ability to grow at tall heights it is able to compete with similar species and having attractive red berry clusters; it may have an advantage for survival through seed dispersal. These tall heights make seed dispersal available through abiotic factors such as; high winds, fires, deforestation, and even accidental introductions. Biotic factors occur such as ingestion and defecation through birds, small mammals, and small rodents. They can also be spread biologically through feeding insects and pollinators.
Geographical Distribution
Figure 4. Amount of Invaded land in US (in acreage)
According to fig. 4; the density of Brazilian Pepper in N. America has been distributed to and invaded the following states; a.) over 700,000 acres of Florida; b.) over 120,000 acres of Hawaii and c.) 45 acres of California.
The mature plant or tree has extensive seed pods and is often dispersed by birds, mammals, pollinators and abiotic factors like wind and weathering. Pruning if not done correctly or efficiently can increase or intensify the proliferation rate of the Brazilian Pepper. This species aggressively outgrows native plants in their environments. The Brazilian pepper forms very dense monotypic stands, which chokes out native plants and prevents sunlight penetration for other organisms. It also sucks all the available nutrients from soils, reducing available nutrients for other organisms.
Habitat
The species can thrive well in anthropocentric disturbed settings. In the U.S, I would expect these plants to proliferate and thrive well around construction sites, roads, ditches, marshes, wetlands and similar environments. Damp and moist soils are favorable conditions for the Brazilian Pepper tree. They thrive well in human disturbed areas such as; ditches, berms, roadsides, canal banks and abandoned farmland (Meyer 2011). They seem to grow well in a wide range of environments which shows its toughness and pertinacity to thrive in new environments. This is why I believe the Brazilian Pepper responds well with human manipulation, environmental changes, or natural catastrophes which would usually devastate native specie’s chances of survival.
The species also thrives in wetlands, marshes, pine forests, grasslands and other types of forests. The Brazilian Pepper does well in temperate weather conditions which confines the species to mostly southern states of the U.S. The plant tolerates long shady conditions making it able to spread with limited sunlight energy.
This Brazilian Pepper species can displace non native species through fire suppression systems. They are able to alter the environment chemistry by suppressing fires long enough for a period of time in which invasion can successfully occur, and the Brazilian Pepper becomes the dominant species because they can tolerate longer and harsher fires. This effect can be seen on pine savannas by the Brazilian Pepper. (Stevens and Beckage) in 2009, conducted a study to examine the effects of Brazilian Pepper fire feedback systems in Pine Savanna environments. The study found that fire may reduce low density populations of Brazilian Pepper and the fire caused a 30-40% mortality rate of low density populations.
Figure 5. Pine Savanna Forest
High density clusters were observed to reduce fire temperatures up to 200 degrees celsius. Another crucial impact was that high densities of Brazilian Pepper decreased fire temperatures to a greater extent than did individuals isolated. As densities increased the fire intensity and spread decreased. In the study, Brazilian Pepper in higher densities resisted fire and did not burn while lower densities burned and sprouted. The key takeaway from this study and research area is that Brazilian Pepper in higher densities can lead to fire resistant populations which can change fire frequency which native plants are accustomed to. This can reduce fires and displace native species in Pine Savanna environments.
The Brazilian Pepper can compete with native plants by altering biological and chemical systems in new habitats. For instance, (Donelly, Green, Walters et al.) in 2008, conducted an interesting study showing how the Brazilian Pepper affected the reproductive ability of mangroves in Florida after the introduction and latter establishment of the Brazilian Pepper. The Brazilian pepper affected the production of fruit in native mangroves, reduced native fauna, and also altered salinity levels in these environments.
Figure 6. Dense Canopy of Mature Brazilian Pepper
Monotypic stands are usually the result of expansion of the Brazilian pepper. That occurs when the species densely outgrows its surrounding environment, and grows dense canopies. These dense canopies makes the Brazilian pepper tree a fierce competitor to native species by out competing for resources and being able to withstand and tolerate a variety of environmental conditions. The Brazilian Pepper can tolerate a wide range of harsh environmental factors. The species when mature can be drought tolerant, fire resistant, withstand freezing temperatures, and shaded environmental conditions. Though it will grow best in temperature regions, you can’t underestimate the Brazilian Pepper’s capabilities to establish in unpredictable environmental conditions after its introduction. Its international invasion capabilities have caused it to spread to Australia, New Zealand, Africa, Europe, and even Asia. It is known as an invasive weed in Southern Africa as well.
Economic Importance
The Brazilian Pepper was Introduced to Florida and Hawaii in the 1800s as an ornamental because of its red appearance and its desired aesthetics from people during Christmas holiday time. In the US, after its introduction it became a widely accepted ornamental especially around holiday times. Its red berries also became attractive to some native wildlife organisms and valuable to humans as an ornamental. After its introduction to the states, states such as Florida and Hawaii would reap the social and economical benefits of the Brazilian Pepper. Though it was socially accepted at the time, they may not have known that the Brazilian Pepper would have such an environmental impact in the future of their states.
Brazilian pepper seeds go through long voyages and travel far distances to establish stable populations across the world, as seen in Florida.
Figure 7. Density of Brazilian Pepper in Subplots of Florida
This invasive, was at one point of time considered a desired plant or tree which would become significant to U.S residents as a holiday necessity, but it is now recognized as a nuisance or pest in most of the states in which it was introduced. According to Ending Non Native Destructive Species (ENNDS), the Brazilian Pepper has spread to at least 700,000 acres of Florida.
It is now prohibited in Florida, from planting the Brazilian pepper without a special required permit. The Everglades National Park has felt the effects of the Brazilian Pepper Invasion, as much acreage is now inhabited by the South American species.
Response to Human Manipulation
I would argue that this species responds extremely well to human manipulation because they can intertwine and infiltrate anthropocentric systems and find a niche to thrive in. The Brazilian Pepper with its resilient roots, can survive in inundated areas and also in areas which are lacking water.
If the root system is allowed to be established, it can be very hard to remove the species from the new area. The roots are very hardy and persist very well in new environments. This makes the Brazilian Pepper a good candidate for restoration or when considering restoration efforts; but you can’t ignore the extent of its invasiveness in new environments. The species is commonly removed by handpicking of the roots because that's one of the only ways to effectively eliminate proliferation of the species. Biological controls are becoming more common when studying the Brazilian Pepper.
According to the University of Florida Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants, “
Two biological control agents are currently approved for use for Brazilian peppertree control in Florida, Pseudophilothrips ichini (Brazilian peppertree thrips) and Calophya latiforceps (Yellow Brazilian peppertree leaf galler).”
Figure 8. Yellow Brazilian peppertree leaf galler Figure 9. Brazilian peppertree thrips
Figure 9, displays Pseudophilothrips ichini, Brazilian peppertree thrips on the right; and Calophya latiforceps, Yellow Brazilian peppertree leaf galler on the left, figure 8. These organisms can have great potential when implemented into an integrated pest management of the Brazilian Pepper.
As of recently, there have been efforts to establish more biocontrol protocols on the Brazilian pepper tree species. Fire ants have also come into consideration of integrated pest management of this species. It’s also becoming common to import non native plants which compete with the Brazilian Pepper, to control its spread. In general, certain weevils and thrips have become widely accepted as biological control agents against the Brazilian Pepper tree.Though these may be some of the most prominent candidates; many tactics are studied and considered due to the severity of its invasiveness, especially in Florida and Hawaii.
Response to Predation, Herbivory, Diseases and/ or Parasites
The biological efforts considered in managing the Brazilian Pepper Tree are by chemical, biological, and mechanical means. Since the Brazilian Pepper can grow extensive fibrous root systems, it must be effectively plucked up from its roots and fully eradicated or they will replenish quickly. Research is being done now to combine mechanical and biological control techniques to deal with the spreading of the species.
As a chemical control technique, it is common to use herbicides to control Brazilian Pepper invasions. These are some commonly utilized liquid herbicide techniques; basal bark treatments, triclopyr, glyphosate, and roundup applications. This can be a prominent solution, but then you would have to consider the possible long lasting effects of introducing new chemical compounds into the surrounding environment and organisms.
Even though mechanical and chemical control; techniques may provide sufficient solutions, biocontrol techniques have become an area of more significant interest to study in regards to the species. The Brazilian Pepper Tree in its native region has over 200 species of natural enemies. Biocontrol through insects has been proven to show promising effects of decreasing the species populations.
Many native organisms such as; Robins, Mockingbirds, Cedar Waxwings, Catbirds and ants like to eat these and pervade the seeds after digestion and defecation. The red berries are attractive to many bird and mammal species and are often pervaded across landscapes by these feeding organisms. Mockingbirds are consistent predators of this species but they are also crucial in the spreading of the seeds to new environments. Raccoons, Opossum, and feral pigs are also often regarded as predators and also play a significant role in the spreading of the Brazilian Pepper seeds as well. Though it is seen as an alien and invader, it does somehow serve as a sufficient food source for some U.S. native organisms.
A study conducted by (Donelly, Green, Walters et al) in 2008 examined the allelopathic effects of the Brazilian Pepper on Black Mangrove and Red Mangrove biomass growth in Florida environments. The study was interesting in that it proved that allelopathic chemicals may have greater impacts on species in invaded ranges without co-evolved defense strategies. This makes the Brazilian Pepper a potential threat to native species which are sensitive to biological invasions and environmental changes. Another significant finding observed from this study and previous studies concluded that the allelopathic properties of the Brazilian Pepper has been negatively impacting the growth of terrestrial native fauna in mangrove environments.
Figure 10. Mangroves in Florida
Coevolved species have adapted to each other ultimately decreasing their susceptibility to each other's allelopathic chemicals. Invasions may have been facilitated by the production of the allelopathic chemicals increasing the potential for the survival and increasing of the Brazilian Pepper species in mangrove ecosystems.
According to a study done by (Carpenter and Cappuccino) in 2005, lower herbivory rates on exotic plants suggest that these species have strong chemical defenses. In another study conducted by (Morgan and Overholt) in 2005, when a species invades a new area plants present in the new habitat, may not be adapted to the exotic’s chemicals and may be very susceptible to the inhibitory effects.
There are some species commonly known for feeding on foliage of the Anacardiaceae family. These species are potential biocontrol species candidates typical for control of the Brazilian Pepper; Apocnemidophrus weevils, leaf mining Gracillariidae, and A. blandus weevils, (Mc Kay, F., et. al., 2009). These species are potential biocontrol species candidates typical for control of this species but their impacts should be considered on native species before actually implementing introduction efforts. Weevils and leaf mining insects love to feed on the foliage of this species, and so they are proving to be viable and efficient options in regards to minimizing leaf foliage of the aggressive invasive.
According to (Mc Kay, Oleiro, Walsh, Gandolfo, Cuda et. al) in 2009,” Biological control of Brazilian peppertree has a long history; efforts began in Hawaii in the 1950s and resulted in the release of 3 insect species: a gall-forming caterpillar, Crasimorpha infuscata Hodges (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), a defoliating caterpillar, Episimus utilis Zimmerman (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), and a seed-feeding beetle, Lithraeus atronotatus. From this research and experimentation, it was recorded that only two of the biological control species were successful in their introduction efforts. These species were; the defoliating caterpillar, Episimus utilis Zimmerman (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), and a seed-feeding beetle, Lithraeus atronotatus; which were successful at finding a niche and establishing populations in Hawaii. This study gives a successful example of how two insect predators are introduced and have a negative relationship with the Brazilian Pepper while having minimal to no impact on the surrounding environment.
Figure 11. Defoliating Sawfly Figure 12. Defoliating Caterpillar
Stem boring weevils, Gracillariid moth leaf miners, and Apocnemidophorous blandus), A weevil from South America have been widely considered because of their efficient ability to feed on foliage of the Brazilian Pepper tree.
From available studies; there seems to be a wide range of considerable options regarding biocontrol technique efforts against the invasion of the Brazilian Pepper Tree in North America. Florida is one of the most affected states by the Brazilian Pepper introduction; but Florida has a vast variety of potential biological predators with a diverse myriad of native insect species who could be feeders. There is also a vast variety of non native insects which can eradicate the species, but it’s effects should be considered on native organisms.
Some instances Florida may want to consider conservation biological control strategies as it may be a sustainable option for controlling the spread of Brazilian Pepper populations in the state. Hawaii is another state hugely impacted by the invasions with over 120,000 acres being affected. It may be a success story that a defoliating caterpillar and seed feeding beetle were able to establish populations against the Brazilian Pepper in the 1950s, which can be a progressive effort in biological control against Brazilian Pepper species. Though it has successfully invaded states such as Hawaaii and Florida, we can prevent its spread to other states. The Brazilian Pepper has had its fair share of invasions around the world. Next time you see this bright red invader, remember to take extreme caution and get further educated on its invasiveness.
References Cited
Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants. (2023, April). Schinus terebinthifolia Brazilian peppertree. UFIFAS. Retrieved from https://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/plant-directory/schinus-terebinthifolia/
Meyer, Rachelle. (2011). Schinus terebinthifolius. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/shrub/schter/all.html [ 2023, April 16].
Texas Invasive Species Institute. (2023). BRAZILIAN PEPPER-TREE. Retrieved from http://www.tsusinvasives.org/home/database/schinus-terebinthifolius
Stevens, J., Beckage, B. (2009) Fire feedbacks facilitate invasion of pine savannas by Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius). New Phytologist Foundation. https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02965.x
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. (2023). Schinus terebinthifolia, Brazilian Pepper, Brazilian Peppertree, Christmas Berry, Florida Holly. Retrieved from https://www.fdacs.gov/Agriculture-Industry/Pests-and-Diseases/Plant-Pests-and-Diseases/Noxious-Weeds/Schinus-terebinthifolia-Brazilian-Pepper
Donelly, M., Green, D., Walters, L. (2018).Allelopathic effects of fruits of the Brazilian pepper Schinus terebinthifolius on growth, leaf production and biomass of seedlings of the red mangrove Rhizophora mangle and the black mangrove Avicennia germinans. Research Gate. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022098108000336
Ending Non Native Destructive Species. (2023). Brazilian Pepper Tree. ENNDS.
Retrieved from https://ennds.org/brazilian-pepper-tree/
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018, June). Poisonous Plants: Geographic Distribution. NIOSH. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/plants/geographic.html
DiTomaso, J.M., G.B. Kyser et al. (2013). Weed Control In Natural Areas in the Western United States. Weed Research and Information Center, University of California. 544 pp. https://wric.ucdavis.edu/information/natural%20areas/wr_S/Schinus.pdf
Mc Kay, F., Oleiro, M.I., Cabrera Walsh, G.J., Gandolfo, D.E., Cuda, J.P., Wheeler, G.S. (2009). Natural enemies of Brazilian peppertree (Sapindales: Anacardiaceae) from Argentina: their possible use for biological control in the USA. Florida Entomologist. 92(2):292-303
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